A.D. Baines, MD, PhD, FRCPC, Professor, Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON.

This article presents a summary of recent recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of Type 2 diabetes in the elderly. Onset of nephropathy, neuropathy and retinopathy can be slowed by treatment designed to reach realistic target values for fasting plasma glucose and HbA1c. Therapy also should minimize the dangers of hypoglycemia. Hepatic and renal function must be monitored when selecting drugs and dosages. Significant reductions in renal function may be associated with serum creatinine within the normal reference range. A stepwise approach to therapy beginning with diet and exercise and proceeding to single and multidrug treatment is outlined. The mode of action, advantages, disadvantages and contraindications for five groups of hypoglycemic agents are summarized.
Key words: Type 2 diabetes, diagnosis, stepped treatment, oral drugs, elderly.

Fritz Francois, MD, Gerald A. Villanueva, MD, Edmund J. Bini, MD, FACP, FACG, Division of Gastroenterology, VA New York Harbor Healthcare System, Bellevue Hospital, and NYU School of Medicine, New York, NY.

Iron deficiency anemia is the most common cause of anemia encountered in clinical practice. In elderly patients, iron deficiency anemia is most commonly due to gastrointestinal blood loss, but also can be caused by poor iron intake or malabsorption of iron. Therefore, a careful evaluation of the gastrointestinal tract is warranted in all elderly patients with iron deficiency anemia. Upper endoscopy and colonoscopy can detect clinically important lesions in up to 44-84% of patients. In those who do not have a cause of iron deficiency anemia identified by endoscopy, the prognosis is excellent. Treatment includes iron supplementation and careful monitoring of hemoglobin levels.
Key words: iron deficiency, anemia, endoscopy, gastrointestinal bleeding, iron malabsorption.

Khaleeq ur Rehman, MBBS, MS(Urol), Department of Urology, McGill University, Montreal, QC.
Serge Carrier, MD, FRCS(C), Department of Urology, McGill University, Montreal, QC.

The increase in male life expectancy has raised concerns about the impact of aging on the male reproductive system. Male testicular function declines gradually with advancing age. In general, testicular perfusion is reduced, aging pigment is accumulated, and the tunica albuginea of the testes and basal membrane of the seminiferous tubules are thickened. The function of Sertoli cells and Leydig cells declines. Among the semen parameters, semen volume, sperm motility and sperm morphology are decreased. The hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis is affected at all levels. In some aging men, the reduction of testosterone levels leads to sexual dysfunction and "andropause". Children born to older fathers carry a higher risk of genetic diseases. This review focuses on the effect of aging on the male gonads.
Key words: aging, gonads, fertility, testosterone.

Marla Shapiro, CCFP, MHSc, FRCPC, FCFP, Assistant Professor, University of Toronto, Department of Family Medicine; Medical Consultant, CTV, Toronto, ON.

Whether women are taking hormone replacement therapy for the prevention of heart disease, osteoporosis or the symptoms of menopause, results from the Women's Health Initiative (WHI) study have brought to the forefront many concerns. Results from this as well as the HOPE study are reviewed, followed by the ensuing responses and recommendations from medical societies. Assessing and tailoring hormone replacement therapy for every woman individually is what can be recommended clearly until further studies are published.
Key words: menopause, hormone replacement therapy, current controversies

With a life expectancy of 81.

D'Arcy Little, MD, CCFP, Lecturer and Academic Fellow, Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of Toronto; Director of Medical Education, York Community Services; 2002 Royal Canadian Legion Scholar in Care of Elderly, Toronto, ON.

Diabetes is a common disease in the elderly. While pharmacological management is important, the need for and benefits of non-phamacological therapy should not be underestimated in this population. Such therapy includes nutrition therapy, physical activity, smoking cessation and diabetic education. This article reviews, in detail, current recommendations for nutrition therapy and physical activity in elderly patients with Type 2 diabetes, including specific recommendations for all types of food groups and specific recommendations for pre-exercise evaluation.
Key words: elderly, diabetes mellitus Type 2, nutrition therapy, diet, physical activity, exercise.

Jay Lee, MD, FRCS(C), Urologist, Division of Urology, Rockyview General Hospital, Calgary, AB.

"Andropause" is currently a controversial clinical diagnosis. However, more information is being garnered due to physician and patient interest. Declines in testosterone are known to have a multitude of systemic effects. Replacement in those who are truly androgen deplete has been demonstrated to be beneficial. This article reviews the diagnosis of andropause and its treatment and related side effects with testosterone replacement therapy.
Key words: androgen, andropause, hormone deficiency, testosterone replacement.

Jeremy L. Freeman, MD, FRCSC, FACS, Professor of Otolaryngology, University of Toronto; Temmy Latner/Dynacare Chair in Head and Neck Oncology, Otolaryngologist-in-Chief, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, ON.

Carsten E. Palme, MB BS, FRACS, Fellow, Head and Neck Oncology, Department of Otolaryngology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON.

The management of thyroid nodules in the elderly patient involves paying specific attention to risk factors for malignancy. Certainly, patients over 45 years of age have a higher risk of harbouring a malignancy than younger patients. When a decision is made for intervention, one must keep in mind comorbidity issues balanced against the risk of surgery for a potential malignant tumour of low biological activity.
Key words: thyroid, risk factors, comorbidity, malignant tumour.

David C.W. Lau, MD, PhD, FRCPC, Professor of Medicine, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; Director, Julia McFarlane Diabetes Research Centre, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB.

As the population ages, the diagnosis of Type 2 diabetes is expected to skyrocket over the next two decades. Diabetes is diagnosed by a fasting venous plasma glucose level of equal to or greater than 7mmol/L or, in the presence of classic symptoms of hyperglycemia, a casual plasma glucose value greater than 11.1mmol/L. Early diagnosis, screening and prevention of diabetes in the elderly will greatly reduce the burden of this serious chronic disease that is associated with increased morbidity and mortality.
Key words: impaired glucose tolerance, diagnosis, screening, prevention, Type 2 diabetes

The Diabetes Epidemic
Diabetes is now reaching epidemic proportions in Canada and the U.

Clarence K.W. Wong, MD, FRCPC, Gastroenterologist and Clinical Lecturer, Division of Gastroenterology, University of Alberta; Consultant, Cross Cancer Institute, Alberta Cancer Board, Edmonton, AB.

Introduction
Gastrointestinal malignancies collectively account for the greatest number of cancer deaths in Canada.¹ This is particularly evident in the elderly population in which 90% of all new cancers are diagnosed in individuals over the age of 45.² Of these new cancers, one in five are gastrointestinal cancers. As these malignancies are often lethal, improved survival depends on preventive strategies to effectively detect and manage the associated precursor conditions. This paper will review the premalignant conditions associated with three common gastrointestinal cancers. Effective management of conditions leading to esophageal, gastric and colon cancers can greatly reduce the burden of disease among the geriatric population.

Esophageal Cancer
Cancers of the esophagus are lethal, with a death to case ratio of 1.11.¹ Although this estimate is high due to incomplete registration of new cases, it underscores the lack of effective treatment for this disease. Until recently, squamous cell carcinomas were the most common type of esophageal cancer. However, in the last few decades the incidence of esophageal adenocarcinomas has increased exponentially. It is likely that this increase is linked to a rise in incidence of its only known risk factor, Barrett's esophagus.

Part 4: Reflexes and Sensory Examination

David J. Gladstone, BSc, MD, Fellow, Cognitive Neurology and Stroke Research Unit, Sunnybrook and Women's College Health Sciences Centre, Division of Neurology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON.
Sandra E. Black, MD, FRCPC, Professor of Medicine (Neurology), University of Toronto; Head, Division of Neurology and Director, Cognitive Neurology Unit, Sunnybrook and Women's College Health Sciences Centre, Toronto, ON.

Abstract
This four-part series of articles provides an overview of the neurological examination of the elderly patient, particularly as it applies to patients with cognitive impairment, dementia or cerebrovascular disease. The focus is on the method and interpretation of the bedside physical examination; the mental state and cognitive examinations are not covered in this review. Part 1 (featured in the September issue) began with an approach to the neurological examination in normal aging and in disease, and reviewed components of the general physical, head and neck, neurovascular and cranial nerve examinations relevant to aging and dementia. Part 2 (featured in the October issue) covered the motor examination with an emphasis on upper motor neuron signs and movement disorders.