Zena Moore, RGN, MSc, FFNMRCSI, Health Research Board of Ireland, Clinical Nursing and Midwifery Research Fellow, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland.
Seamus Cowman, PhD, MSc, FFNMRCSI, P.G Cert Ed (Adults), Dip N (London), RNT, RGN, RPN, Professor and Head of Department, Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland.

Pressure ulcers are common, costly, and adversely affect quality of life. Nutritional status is one risk factor that predisposes individuals to the development of a pressure ulcer. The impact of nutritional supplementation is reflected in the reduced incidence of pressure ulcers; however, the evidence is limited. The precise role of nutritional supplementation in pressure ulcer healing is less clear, yet a trend towards healing has been suggested. Patients should have their nutritional status monitored carefully. If difficulties arise, these should be detected early, and if it is not possible to increase the intake of normal food and fluids, then advice should be sought from the dietitian.
Key words: pressure ulcers, risk, prevention, treatment, nutrition.

Christopher Frank, MD, CCFP, Department of Medicine, Division of Geriatrics, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON.

Skin ulcers are common among older adults, especially those in hospital or in long-term care facilities. Prevention of ulcers is important in all clinical settings. Clarifying the cause(s) and exacerbating factors is the first step in management. Pressure and venous insufficiency are the most common causes among older adults. Poor nutrition, edema, arterial insufficiency, and anemia may impair wound healing. Adequate debridement and cleaning is important to decrease infection risk and to promote healing. The choice of dressings depends on the needs of the individual wound but should emphasize the provision of a moist wound environment. Options for dressings are summarized.
Key words: skin ulcers, treatment, wound healing, older adults, pressure ulcers.

Barbara Brillhart, RN, PhD, CRRN, FNP-C, Arizona State University, College of Nursing, Tempe, Arizona, USA.

Prevention of and assessment for pressure ulcers and skin tears are the responsibilities of the client, family, caregivers, and the health care team. Prevention will avoid discomfort, disfigurement and decreased quality of life, and decrease health care expenses. Assessment includes use of the Braden, Gosnell, Norton, or Waterlow Scales for pressure ulcers and the Payne-Martin classification for skin tears. Factors to prevent pressure ulcers are pressure relief, prevention of shearing and friction, skin cleansing, plus adequate nutrition and hydration. Variables to prevent skin tears include nonbinding clothing, careful transfers, environmental protection, adequate nutrition and hydration, and individualized skin care.
Key words: pressure ulcers, skin tears, assessment, prevention.

The accredited CME learning activity based on this article is offered under the auspices of the CE department of the University of Toronto. Participating physicians are entitled to one (1) MAINPRO-M1 credit by completing this program, found online at www.geriatricsandaging.ca/cme.htm

Anu Singhal, MD, Resident, Metrohealth Medical Centre, Cleveland, OH, USA.
Ernane D. Reis, MD, Assistant Professor, Department of Surgery, The Mount Sinai Medical Center, New York, NY, USA.
Morris D. Kerstein, MD, Chief of Staff, V.A. Medical & Regional Office Center, Wilmington, Delaware; Professor of Surgery, Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia, PA, USA.

Frequently found on the sacrum, pressure ulcers develop due to prolonged periods of unrelieved pressure on soft tissues, but can occur anywhere there is pressure, including trochanters and especially heels. In the bedridden patient, constant pressure causes ischemia and necrosis of subcutaneous tissues and skin. Most patients are elderly, immobile and have neurologic impairments, often associated with inability to sense pain and discomfort and/or incontinence. Sacral ulcers can be treated with debridement, dressings and skin grafts. However, preventive efforts—including a regular turning schedule, proper assessments, moisturizers and adequate diet—are the most cost effective and remain the foundation of management. Pressure ulcers can occur anywhere there is pressure, including trochanters and, especially, heels.

Key words: pressure ulcer, debridement, sacrum, risk factors, wound healing.

Introduction
Pressure ulcers develop under conditions of prolonged pressure and circulatory stasis, which damage the involved tissue by ischemia and necrosis.

Lona Mody, MD, University of Michigan Medical School, Division of Geriatric Medicine; Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, Ann Arbor VA Healthcare System, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.

Skin and soft tissue infections are frequent in older adults residing in both community and nursing homes. Common skin and soft tissue infections include bacterial infections such as cellulitis, erysipelas and necrotizing fasciitis, chronic wound infections, fungal infections such as intertrigo and viral infections like herpes zoster. Early diagnosis is the key to optimal management. Most of these infections can be treated on an outpatient basis and in nursing homes; however, serious infections may require hospitalization especially in frail older adults with a high comorbidity load. This review focuses on clinical manifestations and treatment options for common skin and soft tissue infections in older adults.
Key words: skin infections, cellulitis, necrotizing fasciitis, pressure ulcer, viral infection.

Madhuri Reddy, MD, Dermatology Day Care (Wound Healing Clinic), Sunnybrook and Women's College Health Care Centre, Toronto, ON, Associate Editor, Geriatrics & Aging.

R. Gary Sibbald, BSc, MD, FRCPC (Med), FRCPC (Derm), MACP, DABD, Associate Professor and Director of Continuing Education, Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON.

Introduction
Pressure ulcers are areas of localized damage to the skin and underlying tissue caused by pressure, shear, friction, excess moisture, incontinence or abrasion. They usually occur over bony prominences such as the sacrum, heels, hips and elbows (Figure 1).

Pressure ulcers are associated with a significant burden of illness in the elderly and a significant financial burden to the health care system. In a recent study of a geriatric unit in Glasgow, the prevalence of pressure ulcers was 41%.¹ The incidence in acute care² has been estimated at 10%, and up to 60% of patients develop ulcers while in acute care hospitals.³ In one study, the prevalence of stage I-IV pressure ulcers in 1,960 acute care facilities in Canada from 1995-1998 was 11.2%.⁴ The incidence rate for home care is 15.4%.⁵ Approximately 45% of all pressure ulcers are probably preventable.

Annually, 1.7 million patients in the U.